Los inicios de la medicina griega y su influencia sobre el pensamiento filosófico de occidente / The beginnings of Greek medicine and its influence on western philosophical thought

El final del siglo V y del siglo IV a. C. representaron en la historia de la medicina un momento culminante de cotización social e intelectual. La escuela hipocrática de Cos fue la primera fundación de la ciencia médica como una ciencia especial de existencia propia. A partir de la concepción de la dieta como prescripción terapéutica, la medicina se convierte en una verdadera techné, pues el principio sobre el que descansa la alimentación del hombre sano y del enfermo es el mismo, el de lo adecuado. La influencia de la medicina sobre la filosofía de Platón y Aristóteles ilustra la importancia científica del nuevo método y el nuevo modo de pensar. El médico es, según Platón, el hombre que a base de lo que sabe acerca de la naturaleza del hombre sano conoce también al enfermo, y sabe encontrar los medios para restituirlo a su estado normal. A este ejemplo se atiene Platón para trazar su imagen del filósofo, llamado a hacer otro tanto con el alma del hombre y su salud. El propósito de este trabajo es analizar los inicios de la medicina griega y en qué medida contribuyó ésta al desarrollo del pensamiento filosófico de occidente

The end of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. represented in the history of medicine a culminating moment of social and intellectual contribution. The Hippocratic School of Cos was the first foundation of medical science as a special science of its own existence. Starting from the conception of diet as a therapeutic prescription, medicine becomes a true techné, since the principle on which the diet of healthy and sick man rests is the same, that of what is appropriate. The influence of medicine on the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle illustrates the scientific importance of the new method and the new way of thinking. The doctor is, according to Plato, the man who, based on what he knows about the nature of the healthy man, also knows the patient, and knows how to find the means to restore him to his normal state. This example is followed by Plato to trace his image of the philosopher, called to do the same with the soul of man and his health. The purpose of this work is to analyze the beginnings of Greek medicine, and to what extent the latter contributed to the flourishing of Western philosophical thought

Um olhar sociológico sobre o privilégio epistémico da biomedicina: desconstruindo a metanarrativa / A sociological view on the epistemic privilege of biomedicine: deconstructing the metanarrative

Resumo Apesar do crescente reconhecimento público da sua incompletude e da necessidade de a fazer dialogar com outros saberes, a biomedicina continua a figurar como metanarrativa, como modelo médico epistemologicamente superior, definidor e regulador do que se entende por "saber médico". É na persistência dessa representação de superioridade que reside um dos grandes obstáculos - senão mesmo o maior - à criação de uma efetiva ecologia de saberes no campo dos cuidados de saúde. Com base numa revisão da literatura sobre o tema, este artigo toma justamente por objetivo a desconstrução da versão essencialista da superioridade biomédica, evidenciando o modo como essa suposta superioridade é, na verdade, decorrente de um complexo quadro sociocultural de produção histórica. Assim, revisitando a literatura existente, o artigo desenvolve perspectiva condensada em torno dos principais pilares da construção do poder hegemónico da biomedicina no contexto da modernidade ocidental, a saber: (1) a ligação umbilical da biomedicina à ciência moderna e à sua trajetória de colonização; (2) o processo de anatomoclínica e o modo como, por esse processo, a biomedicina se estabeleceu como poder normativo/regulador, passando a auferir legitimidade e proteção por parte dos Estados; (3) a suposta maior eficácia da biomedicina no quadro de sua maior compatibilidade com os novos imperativos capitalistas; e (4) a constituição de forte movimento profissional biomédico e suas estratégias de fechamento na construção de sua hegemonia.

Abstract Despite the growing public recognition of its incompleteness and its need to make it dialog with other knowledges, biomedicine continues to figure as a metanarrative, as an epistemologically superior medical model, defining and regulating what is meant by "medical knowledge". One of the great obstacles - if not the greatest - to the creation of an effective ecology of knowledges in the field of health care lies in the persistence of this representation of superiority. Based on a review of the literature about the subject, this article aims precisely at deconstructing the essentialist version of biomedicine's superiority, showing how this supposed superiority results, in fact, from a complex sociocultural framework of historical production. In this sense, revisiting the existing literature, the article develops a condensed perspective around the main pillars of the construction of the hegemonic power of biomedicine in the context of Western modernity: (1) the umbilical connection of biomedicine to modern science and its colonization trajectory; (2) the anatomical-clinical process and how biomedicine established itself, through this process, as a normative/regulatory power, gaining legitimacy and protection by the States; (3) the alleged greater effectiveness of biomedicine in the context of its greater compatibility with the new capitalist imperatives; and (4) the constitution of a strong biomedical professional movement and its closing strategies in the construction of its hegemony.

Máquinas y arte-sanos / Machines and artisanal health workers

RESUMEN Este trabajo discute los modelos dominantes y las tensiones, al interior del campo de la salud, entre la concepción del cuerpo humano (máquina); el proceso de trabajo médico (modelos industriales o artesanales); las institucionalidades (hospitales y centros de salud) y los principales agentes (corporación médica y complejo médico industrial). El análisis se contextualiza en EEUU desde fines del siglo XIX a la actualidad. Se discuten dimensiones económico-políticas, ideológico-culturales y científico-técnicas, que atraviesan la historicidad del campo. El propósito es elucidar cómo se viene transformando el campo de la salud, y qué peso tiene la razón instrumental y el capital financiero en ese proceso, en detrimento de lo relacional.

ABSTRACT This work discusses the dominant models and tensions within the health field regarding the conceptualization of the human body (as a machine), the process of health work (industrial and artisanal models), institutions (hospitals and health centers) and primary agents (the medical corporation and the medical industrial complex). The context of analysis is the United States from the end of the 19th century to the present. Economic-political, ideological-cultural, and scientific-technical dimensions are discussed, which permeate the historicity of the field. The purpose is to illustrate how the health field has transformed over time, as well as the role instrumental reason and financial capital has played in this process, to the detriment of relational aspects.

Origen de los argumentos científicos que fundamentan la investigación cualitativa / Origin of the scientific arguments underlying qualitative research

RESUMEN Este artículo analiza el origen de los principales argumentos que fundamentan el abordaje cualitativo, desde la cuna del pensamiento comprensivo y dialéctico en Alemania, su expansión hacia otros países como Francia y EE.UU., y hacia América Latina. El texto hace un recorrido histórico a partir del desarrollo de la ciencia moderna; desde los primeros trabajos empíricos de la Escuela de Chicago, y la decadencia del abordaje cualitativo. Pero el texto muestra un renacimiento de las perspectivas teóricas y empíricas comprensivas a partir de los años sesenta, acompañando el movimiento cultural que cuestionó las grandes narrativas teóricas y dio lugar a las reflexiones sobre la subjetividad. Teóricamente, hoy se consideran los abordajes cualitativos una forma promisoria de adquisición de conocimiento al interior de las ciencias sociales y humanas, con teorías consolidadas y un proceso de crítica interna permanente. Investigadores organizados en congresos y departamentos universitarios; libros para la formación de nuevos investigadores; ampliación de espacios en revistas científicas aseguran su consolidación.

ABSTRACT This article analyzes the origin of the primary arguments that underpin the qualitative approach, covering the birthplace of comprehensive and dialectical thought in Germany, its expansion into other countries such as France and the United States, and its spread into Latin America. The historical journey of the text starts with the development of modern science, examining the first empirical works in the Chicago School and the subsequent period of ostracism of qualitative research. The text also evidences a revival of comprehensive theoretical and empirical perspectives from the 1960s onwards, accompanying the cultural movement that came to question the great theoretical narratives and give rise to reflections on subjectivity. Theoretically, qualitative approaches are now considered a promising form of knowledge construction within the social and human sciences, with consolidated theories and a process of permanent internal critique. Such consolidation is ensured by the researchers' formation of conferences and university departments, the existence of books for the training of new researchers, and the increased presence of relevant spaces in scientific journals.

Tradição e fundamentos éticos hipocráticos aplicáveis à terminalidade da vida / Hippocratic tradition and ethical foundations applicable to the life terminality

A medicina ocidental tem sua origem na Grécia antiga, quando o pensamento mítico e a prática médica sobrenatural e empírica dão lugar a uma racionalidade médica - tékhnē-iatrikē - baseada na observação da natureza. A tékhnē-iatrikē compreende a enfermidade e o enfermo como partes constitutivas da natureza, regidas por leis universais e normas preconcebidas, não devendo, por isso, ser utilizados meios irracionais para superá-las. A racionalidade técnica dominante na medicina atual afastou a prática médica contemporânea da arte hipocrática, e os avanços da ciência e da tecnologia proporcionam condições de manutenção da vida que geram dilemas éticos em pacientes terminais, relegando a dignidade humana a segundo plano. A ética hipocrática, baseando-se no respeito às leis naturais e à pessoa humana, é importante instrumento que, aliado à cultura, à técnica e à arte, proporcionam ao médico o exercício da medicina em conformidade com os preceitos de sua tradição...

Occidental medicine has its origins in ancient Greece, when mythical thoughts and supernatural and empirical medical practice gave place to ideas which favored the development of the pre-technical era of medicine - tékhnē iatrikē - based on observations of nature. tékhnē iatrikē understands the illness and the sick as constitutive parts of nature, driven by universal laws and preconceived rules, and, as a consequence, no irrational means should be used to surpass them. The technical rationality dominant in current medicine has departed contemporary medical practice from the Hippocratic art, and advances in science and technology allow conditions of maintenance of life that bring ethical dilemmas in terminal patients, not considering human dignity. Hippocratic ethics, based on the respect for natural laws and the human being is an important instrument that, allied to culture, to technique and to art allow doctors to practice medicine in conformity with the precepts of its traditions...

La medicina occidental tiene sus orígenes en la antigua Grecia, cuando el pensamiento mítico y la práctica médica sobrenatural y empírica dan lugar a una racionalidad médica - tékhnē iatrikē - basado en la observación de la naturaleza. La tékhnē iatrikē entiende la enfermedad y el enfermo como partes constituyentes de la naturaleza, que se rigen por leyes universales y normas preconcebidas, y por eso no se debe utilizarse medios irracionales para superarlas. La racionalidad técnica dominante en la medicina actual distanció la práctica de la medicina contemporánea del arte hipocrático, y los avances de la ciencia y la tecnología ofrecen condiciones del mantenimiento de la vida que generan dilemas éticos en los pacientes terminales, relegando la dignidad humana a un segundo plano. La ética hipocrática, basándose en el respeto a las leyes naturales y a la persona humana, es una importante herramienta que, combinada con la cultura, el arte y la técnica, proporcionan al médico la práctica de la medicina de acuerdo con los preceptos de su tradición...

Los aforismos médicos de sir William Osler / Medical Aphorisms of Sir William Osler

William Osler es recordado como uno de los médicos más prestigiados de los siglos XIX y XX, no sólo por su capacidad para resolver problemas de índole clínico, sino, principalmente, por los valores éticos y la filosofía con la que se condujo en su vida cotidiana. Osler sigue siendo un ejemplo para los médicos de las generacionesmodernas, ya que el sistema de aprendizaje que instauró entre sus alumnos (basado en la combinación de la teoría con la práctica médica que se desarrolla al pie de la cama del paciente) sigue vigente hasta nuestros días. Los aforismos presentados en este texto son una invitación a regresar a los orígenes de la medicina, y a recordar que esta profesión forma parte indisoluble del humanismo.

William Osler is remembered as one of the most prestigious physicians of thenineteenth and twentieth centuries, not only for its ability to solve clinical cases,but mainly for ethical values and philosophy by he was conducted in their daily live. Osler remains an example for doctors of modern generations, because the learning system established among their students (based on the combination of theory and medical practice that is developed at patient bed) remains in force until today. The aphorisms presented in this text are an invitation to return to the origins of medicine, and remember that this profession is an indissoluble part of humanism.

Ayurveda - a medicina clássica indiana / Ayurveda - the classical indian medicine

O objetivo do presente artigo é apresentar de forma sucinta as bases da Medicina Clássica Indiana, o Ayurveda. A palavra sânscrita Ayurveda significa literalmente o conhecimento (veda) da longevidade (ayus). Apresentamos um histórico das principais influências de outras medicinas ancestrais que conviveram com o Ayurveda, principalmente graças às várias invasões que o território indiano sofreu ao longo de toda sua história. Diferenciamos o Ayurveda de caráter experimental e de refinada observação de sintomas e sinais das doenças de outras formas de medicina mística praticadas no mesmo território indiano por sacerdotes brâmanes ritualistas. São delineados os princípios fundamentais do Ayurveda, desde a Filosofia Samkhya que oferece suas bases metafísicas, passando pela doutrina dos três humores (tridosha vidya) e dos cinco elementos básicos, pela fisiopatologia com a descrição das várias etapas evolutivas das doenças e seus prognósticos e pela funcionalidade dos sete tecidos corporais, tanto na sua forma saudável como patológica. Descrevemos também os canais de circulação (srotamsi) com suas respectivas funções de conduzir materiais densos como o sangue, a transpiração, as fezes e a urina, bem como os canais de energia sutil responsáveis pela condução dos pensamentos e das funções mentais. As técnicas de diagnóstico são também apresentadas em conjunto com as variadas formas de tratamento, baseadas em terapias mente-corpo como as práticas de ioga e meditação.

The aim of this article is to introduce briefly the foundations of the Classical Indian Medicine, Ayurveda. The Sanskrit word Ayurveda literally means the knowledge (veda) of longevity (ayus). We present a history on the main influences of other ancient medicines that coexisted with Ayurveda, due to the several invasions that the Indian Territory suffered throughout all of its history. Ayurveda has an experimental character and a refined observation of symptoms and signs of diseases, distinct from other forms of mystic medicines practiced within the Indian Territory by orthodox Brahmins priests. The fundamental principles of Ayurveda go from the Samkhya Philosophy that offers its metaphysical bases, through the three humours (tridosha vidya) and five basic elements doctrines, the pathophysiology with the description of the numerous evolutionary steps of diseases and prognosis according to functionality of the seven basic body tissues, in both their healthy and pathological forms. Likewise, we describe the channels of circulation (srotamsi) with their respective functions of conducting dense materials such as blood, perspiration, feces and urine, as well as the subtle energy channels, responsible for the conduction of thoughts and mental functions.

Art-Chance and Art-Experience in Classical Greece / 의사학

In Classical Greece, works defining the nature of art appeared in the various disciplines like medicine, rhetoric, dietetics, architecture and painting. Hippocratic authors tried to show that an art of medicine existed indeed. They contrasted the concept of art with that of chance, not experience that Plato and Aristotle distinguished from art. In fact there are similarities and discrepancies between Hippocratic epistemology and Platoic epistemology. Hippocratic authors maintained that the products of chance were not captured by art. They distinguished the domain of art charactered by explanatory knowledge and prediction from the domain of chance ruled by the unexplained and the unforeseeable. They minimized the role of luck and believed the role of art. Hippocratic authors thought that professional ability contained both knowledge and experience. In Hippocratic corpus, experience is a synonym of competence and usually has a positive meaning. But Plato gave empirical knowledge the disdainful sense and decided a ranking between two types of knowledge. Both Hippocratic authors and Plato held that a genuine art had connection with explanatory knowledge of the nature of its subject matter. A common theme that goes through arguments about art-chance and art-chance is the connection between art and nature. Hippocratic authors and Plato regarded art as a highly systematic process. Art provides us with general and explanatory knowledge of human nature. Art and nature is a mutual relationship. The systematic understanding of nature helps us gain the exactness of art and an exact art helps us understand nature well.

The Identity of the Author's Opponents of On Ancient Medicine / 의사학

The identity of the author's opponents of On Ancient Medicine is an attractive and problematic question. In 1963, Lloyd suggested that the author was attacking Philolaus or medical thinkers influenced by him. In 1998, Vegetty argued that the author's attack was directed at Empedocles himself. But Lloyd's hypothesis need to solve Philolaus' paradox and there is a strong evidence that the author is not criticizing a specific text or thinker at all, but rather a general trend or tendency in the medicine of his time. It is that the author regularly refers to the opponents in the plural(chh. 1, 13, 15, 20). Jouanna in his introduction Bude edition(p. 18) supposes that the author means to say that he has completed his discussion of his initially announced opponents and that he is now launching an independent criticism of philosophical medicine in general, as if there is no essential connection between the two groups. But the distinction between the polemic of chh 1-19 and that of chapter 20 is largely a matter of emphasis. In chh 1-19 the author focuses on the aspect of the opponents' causal reductionism, i.e. reduction of the causes and cures of disease to a few factors. And in chapter 20 he steps back to discuss more general physis theory on which such a position was based. At any rate, We can readily see that initial opponents and the thinkers of chapter 20 at least belong the same intellectual milieu. The answer to the question "Who is attacked in On Ancient Medicine?" is not a specific thinker or different groups, but all those who attempted to reduce the cause of disease to a few factors, and to base their medical practice on a theory of the human physis. An opinion that this work attacked a special thinker involves some of the same pitfalls as the traditional Hippocratic question.

La escuela de clínica médica: su estado actual: ¿clínicos, internistas o generalistas? / The school of clinical medicine: present status ¿clinicians, internists or generalists?

The school of clinical medicine: present status ¿clinicians, internists or generalists?.

King Jung-jo's Medical Philosophy / 의사학

King Jungjo who introduced the advent of cultural renaissance of Chosun Dynasty as little been known about his work in medicine. With a wide knowledge in medicine, he was the only one among the kings who wrote a book on medicine, called "SueMinMyoJeon". In this paper, his perspective on medicine will be looked into based on "The Annals of the Chosun Dynasty", "Seungjeongwon Ilgi", "Hong Je jun Se", "KukGoBoGam", "Ildkrok", "JeJungShinPyun", "SueMinMyoJeon" etc. King Jungo valued empiricism in the field of medicine. He deepened understandings in medicine while taking care of King Youngjo, the late king. And it led him to author "SueMinMyoJeon" himself, and further ordered the publications of "JeJungShinPyun" "MaGuaHeoiTong". These two books were conducted to include empirical cases of folklore remedy. King Jungjo's medical philosophy can be epitomized in filial piety and realization of people-serving politics, which are the essentials of Confucianism. His filial piety towards the late king, Youngjo and his mother is shown in his devotion when taking care of them. Especially the way he examined the differentiation of diseases and corresponding treatments is well described in "The Annals of the Chosun Dynasty". "JeJungShinPyun" was also published and it came handy for folk villagers in times of medical needs. Later this book influenced "BangYakHaepPyun" by Hwang Do Yeon. King Jungjo emphasized pragmatism in spreading medical knowledges, thus removing the theoretical contents that are related to Taoism, especially the ones on alchemy from "DongEuiBoGam", when publishing "SueMinMyoJeon". Even the excerpts from "SoMun" were taken out, if not practical. King Jungjo, however, discussed the importance of healthy regimen and mentioned himself practicing it from the book "IlDeukLok", which seems to be the only book that derailed from the pragmatistic track. King Jungjo put emphasis on consistency between diagnosis and treatment. In diagnosing, Meridian pulse was taken important as a means of finding the origin of disease, while deploring how doctors then neglected to study.

Comparative Research into the Process of Forming the Theory of Constitution in Ancient Western Medicine and that of Four Trigrams Constitution in Korean Medicine and Contents of Two Theories of Constitution / 의사학

After conducting comparative research into the process of forming the Theory of Constitution in Ancient Western Medicine and that of Four Trigrams Constitution(Sasang Constitution) in Korean Medicine and contents of two Theories of Constitution in terms of medical history, both theories were found to be formed by an interaction between philosophy and medicine, followed by a combination of the two, on a philosophical basis. The Theory of Constitution in Ancient Western Medicine began with the Theory of Four Elements presented by Empedocles, followed by the Theory of Four Humors presented by Hippocrates and the Theory of Four Temperaments by Galenos, forming and developing the Theory of Constitution. After the Middle Ages, there was no significant advance in the Theory of Constitution by modern times ; however, it developed into the theory of constitution type of Kretschmer and others after the 19th century and into the scientific theory of constitution based on genetics presented by Garrod and others early in the 20th century. The Theory of Four Trigrams Constitution began with the Theory of Constitution in Huangdi Neijing, followed by developments and influences of existing medicine called beginning, restoration, and revival periods and DongeuisoosebowonSaSangChoBonGwon based on the original philosophy of Four Trigrams presented by Lee Je-ma, which is found in GyeokChiGo, DongMuYuGo and so on, ultimately forming and developing into the Theory of Four Trigrams Constitution in Dongeuisoosebowon. Recently, a lot of research is being conducted into making it objective in order to achieve reproducibility in diagnosis and so forth of Four Trigrams Constitution.

O império dos hormônios e a construção da diferença entre os sexos / The reign of hormones and the construction of gender differences

A partir do debate teórico sobre gênero e ciência, discute os processos de redefinição das diferenças de gênero e sexo por meio de marcadores tidos como biológicos ou naturais. Identifica um percurso de naturalização das diferenças através de uma lógica de 'substancialização' ou 'materialização', a exemplo da percepção da medicina sobre a mulher, que promove modelos explicativos da economia corporal feminina centrados ora em órgãos como útero e ovários, ora na mecânica dos hormônios e, mais recentemente, também nas distinções genéticas e neurológicas. Aborda a trajetória da descoberta dos chamados hormônios sexuais e sua relação com a perspectiva dualista, no que se refere ao gênero. Demonstra como esses poderosos mensageiros químicos ajudaram a configurar a passagem entre uma lógica do excesso que envolvia o sexo até o final do século XIX, para o imperativo da falta, predominante desde meados do século XX.

Within the context of the theoretical debate on gender and science, the article discusses the process of redefining gender and sex differences using so-called biological or natural markers. It identifies how gender differences undergo naturalization using a logic of 'substantialization or 'materialization'. This process is exemplified in how medicine views women, promoting explanatory models of economics of the female body that are at times centered around organs like the uterus and ovaries, at other times centered on the mechanics of hormones, and, most recently, focused on genetic and neurological differences. More specifically, it follows the discovery of so-called sex hormones and its relation to a dualist perspective of gender. These powerful chemical messengers helped shaped the passage from the logic of excess surrounding sex through the late nineteenth century, to the imperative of insufficiency, prevalent since the mid-twentieth century.

The Contradictive Tendencies in Medical Treatment of the Hellenistic Age: Diversity versus Simplification, Chronic Extension(Physical Therapy) versus Rapidity, Humane Medicine versus Worldly Success / 의사학

It is a one-sided view to find the greatness of Hippocrates just in seeking after scientific medicine(medicina scientia) and sublating superstitious treatment. The scientific medicine did not begin with him, and the succeeding generations of him were not one and the same in opinions. For example, there were the confrontations between the school of Kos and that of Knidos in the very age of Hippocrates, as well as the opposition of rationalism and empiricism. The school of Kos was alleged to succeed the tradition of Hippocrates, taking into consideration individual physical conditions and being based on the principle of various clinical methods of physical therapy assuming chronical extension. On the contrary, the school of Knidos tended to define the diseases in simple aspects, paying no much attention to the difference of physical conditions and developmental stages of illness. Futhermore, the latter grasped the diseases rather in the point of individual organs than the disorder of physical state of the body. It can be said that the anatomical knowledge was more useful for the school of Knidos. The difference between the two schools can also be found in what purpose the medicine sought after. While Hippocrates attached much importance to physical therapy and made the people including the poor as object of medical treatment. there were doctors in no small number, we can suppose, in pursuit of money, power, worldly glory. As time passed, however, the two schools gradually got similar to each other, the difference of them reduced as well as the tradition of Hippocrates faded. The opposition between rationalism and empiricism in the Hellenistic Age shared, in some aspect, the difference of Kos and Knidos. According to Celsus, the conflict between rationalism and empiricism did not refer to pharmacy or anatomy, but just to diet. The rationalism materialized various methods of therapy considering environmental elements as well as individual physical conditions, but the empiricism in reality tended to expedite simplification of treatment. This tendency of simplification of the latter corresponded to the contemporary need of society, that is, speedy and effective treatment for the wounded in war or for epidemic in the army, farms of collective labour or much crowded cities. The bigger the groups were, the more the methods of treatment got simplified, individual conditions not much accounted. Then, the empiricism came to be united with anatomy, as the anatomy, being much developed in the process of curing the wounded in war, goes with simplification of medical treatment in the hospital of large scale. It can be said that the origin of simplified definition of diseases goes back far to the school of Knidos. On the other hand, in Hippocrates the drugs were in contrast to the diet. While the diet was to help health and rehabilitate physical conditions, the drugs were to result in strong effects of change. The drugs like as poison, eye-salve, ointment were to be made use f for rapid, effective change of physical state or for the treatment of a concrete, limited part of the body, These drugs were also much developed in the Hellenistic Age of the state of chronic war. In initial stages, the toxical drugs as well as the anatomy and surgical operations must have been developed on peaceful purpose, such like as 'theriaca' detoxicating(antidoting) animal's poison, or for easing childbirth. With the increasement of social inequality and unexhausted human desire, however, the toxical drugs or anatomical knowledges got to be used for undesirable purposes. Thus, we can not estimate Hippocrates simply in the point whether he developed scientific medicine or not. The great fame of Hippocrates could be found rather in his method of medical treatment as well as the principle of medicine, as he believed that the medicine should not be exploited for worldly power or wealth but for the convenience of all the people. He pursued healthy life matching to natural state(physis) and took much account of different physical states of individual to embody various methods of treatment, which presupposed chronic delay. The opposite to the Hippocratic medicine is called for the wounded by war, or the collective labourer of large farm with intensive labour exploitation. The medical treatment for them assumed anatomical surgery and drugs of rapid, strong effect.

A saúde da Physis e a saúde do Dasein em Heidegger / Physis's health and Dasein's health according to Heidegger

Ao investigar o significado do conceito de physis em Aristóteles, Heidegger parece defender a idéia de que o corpo físico guarda em si um poder espontâneo de cura, correspondendo à conhecida noção da natura medicatrix. Contudo, em suas exposições nos seminários de Zollikon, ele deixa claro que a saúde e a enfermidade são apenas modos existenciais do Dasein como ser-no-mundo. Por isso, o corpo, com sua fisiologia e sua patologia, estão sempre submetidos ao domínio da essência ex-tática do Dasein; o homem jamais é natureza, como pressupõe a ontologia cartesiana. O artigo realiza um confronto entre essas duas abordagens de Heidegger. Mostra também as conseqüências de três determinações da saúde que são as únicas coerentes com a ontologia fundamental de Heidegger: a enfermidade é uma privação ontológica; a saúde é a potencialidade de ser do Dasein em sua essência ex-tática; o estresse e a enfermidade relacionam-se com o círculo hermenêutico de interpelações e respostas que o Dasein mantém em seu vínculo essencial com o mundo.

In his study about the meaning of the Aristotle's concept of physis, Heidegger seems to espouse the idea that human physical body keeps inside itself a spontaneous power of healing, that responds to the well-known notion of natura medicatrix. However, at the Zollikon seminars, he made clear that health and disease are nothing else than modes of Dasein's existential ways of being-in-the-world. Thus the body, its physiology and pathology are always submitted to the sway of the unfolding essence of Dasein; man never is nature as thinks the Cartesian ontology. This article carries through a confrontation between these two Heidegger's approaches to health. It also shows the consequences of three determinations of health in Heidegger's thought that are coherent with his fundamental ontology: a) disease is a an ontological privation; b) health is a potentiality of the being of Dasein in its unfolding essence; c) stress and disease relate to the hermeneutical circle of addresses and answers that Dasein upholds in its essential bond to the world.

A Study on the Shin Man's Life and Idea of Medicine in Juchonsinbang / 의사학

For the purpose of understanding the feature of medicine in the late Chosun Dynasty, I investigated Shin Man(1620-1669)'s life and his idea of medicine in Juchonsinbang. Shin Man was a scholar who lived in the middle of the Chosun dynasty. He was famous for his resistance against Ching dynasty in Byeongjahoran, and for his chivalrous spirit. He was daring, inflexible and unrestricted by nature. And his character was reflected in his medical ideas. He studied along Song Si-yeol and started his official career together. Both worked for King Hyojong who strongly wanted to send an expedition to conquer the North. But after the sudden death of King Hyojong, the project to conquer the North had went for nothing. And Shin Man went back to the rural life in Juchon, Jinjam. On the one hand, he lived the life of pursuit of learning Seong Confucianism in Juchon, and on the other hand, he wrote the original form of Juchonsinbang. Shin Man wanted to establish and spread the universal and popularized medicine. So he set a goal to publish a simple and plain prescription book, which corresponds to his idea of medicine which deals with curing people. The currently remaining editions of Juchonsinbang are 3 types. One is the lead printed edition. The others are the dissimilar 2 transcribed editions. There are considerable differences between the lead printed edition and the transcribed editions. The lead printed edition focused on the human being, and divided the category of human being as 3 parts, which are infant, womenkind and adult. Whereas the transcribed editions focused on disorders and aimed at universalization and simplification of medicine. Thus the main viewpoint of medicine changed from disorders to human being. By the way, there are many occult prescriptions in Juchonsinbang. And they aren't distorted with the standpoint of those days. While the time of writing Juchonsinbang has many questionable problems. And there is no historical material which shows the exact time of writing.